{"id":30797,"date":"2025-01-29T14:00:20","date_gmt":"2025-01-29T14:00:20","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/research.reading.ac.uk\/research-blog\/?p=30797"},"modified":"2025-02-18T13:25:12","modified_gmt":"2025-02-18T13:25:12","slug":"elon-musk-and-the-history-of-the-roman-salute","status":"publish","type":"post","link":"https:\/\/research.reading.ac.uk\/research-blog\/2025\/01\/29\/elon-musk-and-the-history-of-the-roman-salute\/","title":{"rendered":"Elon Musk and the history of the \u2018Roman\u00a0salute\u2019"},"content":{"rendered":"

[vc_row][vc_column][vc_column_text]<\/p>\n

How often do you think about the Roman empire<\/a>? Elon Musk claims to think about it every day<\/a>. Given his frequent references to Roman antiquity, I think we can take him at his word.<\/p>\n

From airing his views on the fall of the Roman empire (demographic decline)<\/a> to expressing his desire to see a \u201cmodern-day Sulla\u201d<\/a>, Musk\u2019s views on ancient Rome demand our attention. Sulla, by the way, was the notorious first-century BC dictator who had hundreds of his political opponents murdered.<\/p>\n

On January 20 at a rally to mark the inauguration of Donald Trump for his second term as president, Musk acknowledged the crowd: \u201cI just want to say thank you, for making it happen. Thank you.\u201d He then put his right hand over his heart before extending his arm<\/a>, elbow-straight, at a roughly 45-degree angle, with palm outstretched and facing down. He then turned around to face the audience behind the stage to repeat the gesture.<\/p>\n

Many who saw it were quick to claim Musk was performing a Nazi salute<\/a>. But the fact is that this straight-arm gesture was actually first popularised by the Italian fascist leader, Benito Mussolini, who ruled as a dictator in Italy between 1922 and 1943.<\/p>\n

Musk\u2019s supporters on social media \u2013 especially on the Musk-owned X (formerly Twitter) \u2013 in turn pointed to Musk\u2019s enthusiasm for ancient Rome<\/a>. This was not a fascist gesture, they insisted, but a \u201cRoman salute\u201d. Several posted scenes from the 2005-07 TV series Rome<\/a>, which depicts Roman salutes, as evidence in support of their claim.<\/p>\n

[\/vc_column_text][\/vc_column][\/vc_row][vc_row][vc_column][vc_video link=”https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=e2bbb-6Clhs”][\/vc_column][\/vc_row][vc_row][vc_column][vc_column_text]<\/p>\n

But what, if anything, is the difference between a Roman and fascist salute?<\/p>\n

No evidence from Rome<\/h2>\n

Those of us who research and teach Roman antiquity, as I do, will tell you there is no evidence that there was ever such a thing as a \u201cRoman salute\u201d in antiquity.<\/p>\n

Martin Winkler<\/a>, in his study of the history of the gesture, suggests that the Roman salute is a modern invention. For example, in one of the most complete iconographic monuments to Roman militarism and imperialism, Trajan\u2019s Column<\/a> (built in Rome in AD 113 with the spoils from the Dacian wars in what is now eastern Europe), there is not a single gesture akin to a Roman salute. Nor do we have any statues of Roman emperors or commanders performing the gesture.<\/p>\n

The closest that we come to a Roman salute are representations of a palm raised, with elbow bent, in a sign of greeting \u2013 a little like a modern-day wave. None of this is remotely close to the straight-armed variety of the sort performed by Musk.<\/p>\n

It was during the period of the French Revolution that the gesture was invented by revolutionary republicans who framed their politics as a revival of the Roman republic. The best example of this classicising invention is Jacques-Louis David\u2019s 1784 painting, The Oath of the Horatii, which shows the three patriotic Horatii brothers giving an oath to defend the republic against an attack by the rival city of Alba in early Roman history.<\/p>\n

[\/vc_column_text][\/vc_column][\/vc_row][vc_row][vc_column][vc_single_image image=”30802″ img_size=”large” add_caption=”yes” alignment=”center”][\/vc_column][\/vc_row][vc_row][vc_column][vc_column_text]<\/p>\n

Later examples include a 1921 sculpture by Fran\u00e7ois-L\u00e9on Siccard in the Paris Panth\u00e9on. This sculpture, The National Convention<\/a>, is especially interesting because the Roman salute still has its French republican meaning \u2013 although the sculpture postdates the salute\u2019s adoption by Italian fascists by two years.<\/p>\n

[\/vc_column_text][\/vc_column][\/vc_row][vc_row][vc_column width=”1\/2″][vc_single_image image=”30803″ img_size=”medium” add_caption=”yes”][\/vc_column][vc_column width=”1\/2″][vc_column_text]Following the French example, the salute was adopted by other republics \u2013 including, in certain contexts, the US, from the late 19th century up until the early 1940s.<\/p>\n

In fact, when an early version of the current American pledge of allegiance<\/a> was introduced in 1892 at the Chicago World Fair, its recitation was accompanied by the \u201cBellamy salute\u201d<\/a> \u2013 a similar form of the gesture.[\/vc_column_text][\/vc_column][\/vc_row][vc_row][vc_column][vc_column_text]<\/p>\n

The road to fascism<\/h2>\n

The Roman salute\u2019s journey towards being inextricably associated with far-right politics began when a movement led by the Italian poet and nationalist Gabriele D\u2019Annunzio<\/a> occupied the then-Yugoslavian town of Rijeka<\/a> in 1919. Rijeka, called Fiume in Italian, is a city on Croatia\u2019s Adriatic coast that had a large Italian population at the time. Italian nationalists therefore saw it as rightfully Italian.<\/p>\n

D\u2019Annunzio, along with an army of Italian first world war veterans, occupied the city in 1919<\/a> to establish what they called the \u201cRegency of Carnaro\u201d, which lasted into the following year. During the short life of this city-state, D\u2019Annunzio established a number of symbols and gestures that he claimed were derived from ancient Rome: the battle cry, purportedly of Roman origin, \u201calal\u00e0\u201d<\/em> and the \u201cRoman salute\u201d.<\/p>\n

[\/vc_column_text][\/vc_column][\/vc_row][vc_row][vc_column][vc_single_image image=”30804″ img_size=”large” add_caption=”yes” alignment=”center”][\/vc_column][\/vc_row][vc_row][vc_column][vc_column_text]Prior to the occupation of Rijeka, D\u2019Annunzio had been deeply immersed in the worlds of ancient Greece and ancient Rome. He wrote numerous poems and plays inspired by Greco-Roman antiquity and had also purportedly written the screenplay for Cabiria<\/a> \u2013 a 1914 silent film set in ancient Rome at the time of the Second Punic War (against Carthage which lasted from 218 to 201BC).<\/p>\n

There are several scenes in which we see the salute that would reappear in Rijeka five years later. In the development of fascist symbolism, life imitated art.<\/p>\n

Soon after this, when Benito Mussolini founded the Italian fascist movement in 1919, he adopted D\u2019Annunzio\u2019s salute.<\/p>\n

Although the modernist and classicising elements within the fascist movement itself were in tension with each other, much of the classical symbolism of the Regency of Carnaro was adopted by Mussolini\u2019s fascism.<\/p>\n

Winkler<\/a> suggests that D\u2019Annunzio modelled himself on Julius Caesar, while Mussolini modelled himself on D\u2019Annunzio. Mussolini\u2019s fascism, which morphed into a political party, entered government in October 1922 after the now infamous March on Rome<\/a> and by 1925 Mussolini had established himself as dictator of Italy.<\/p>\n

Around the same time as the March on Rome, the burgeoning National Socialist German Workers\u2019 party in Germany began to use the salute. By 1926 it was compulsory for members. Ever since, the Roman salute has been irreversibly associated with far-right nationalism and adopted by neo-Nazi movements around the globe. Few remember its 18th-century French revolutionary origins. Fewer still that it has nothing really to do with Rome.\"The<\/p>\n

Dr Samuel Agbamu<\/a>, Lecturer in Classics<\/p>\n

This article is republished from The Conversation<\/a> under a Creative Commons license. Read the original article<\/a>.[\/vc_column_text][\/vc_column][\/vc_row]<\/p>\n","protected":false},"excerpt":{"rendered":"

[vc_row][vc_column][vc_column_text] How often do you think about the Roman empire? Elon Musk claims to think about it every day. 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