{"id":23,"date":"2018-05-25T09:16:14","date_gmt":"2018-05-25T08:16:14","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/research.reading.ac.uk\/social-landscapes-multicultural-spaces\/?page_id=23"},"modified":"2021-10-25T23:44:11","modified_gmt":"2021-10-25T22:44:11","slug":"section-2","status":"publish","type":"page","link":"https:\/\/research.reading.ac.uk\/social-landscapes-multicultural-spaces\/section-2\/","title":{"rendered":"Ste\u0107ci"},"content":{"rendered":"<p><span class=\"emphasise\"><strong><span lang=\"EN-GB\">General<\/span><\/strong><\/span><\/p>\n<p><span lang=\"EN-GB\">Ste\u0107ci are medieval tombstones dispersed throughout the landscapes of Serbia, Croatia, Montenegro, Kosovo, and particularly Bosnia and Herzegovina (BiH). The evidence suggests they first appeared in the 12<\/span><span lang=\"EN-GB\">th<\/span><span lang=\"EN-GB\">\u00a0C, and were in use until the 16<\/span><span lang=\"EN-GB\">th<\/span><span lang=\"EN-GB\">\u00a0C. They characterise a specific funerary phenomenon and represent a unique interdigitation of traditions, religions, artistic and aesthetic expressions, as well as languages. Their morphology varies immensely,<\/span><span lang=\"EN-GB\">\u00a0<\/span><span lang=\"EN-GB\">from pseudo-sarcophagi to crosses, slabs and chests. Approximately 10% of ste\u0107ci bear decorations and epitaphs with their iconographies demonstrating continuity within medieval Europe, as well as unique local traditions.<\/span><span lang=\"EN-GB\">\u00a0<\/span><span lang=\"EN-GB\">The number of these monuments is\u00a0<\/span><span lang=\"EN-GB\">staggering:<\/span><span lang=\"EN-GB\">\u00a0over 72,000 ste\u0107ci are currently recorded in the Western Balkans, with more than 60,000 found in BiH alone. They embody centuries of Bosnian tolerance, which evolved from long-lasting cohabitation of local, diverse ethnicities. Simultaneously, these populations followed different religions: Orthodox Christianity, Roman Catholicism, the Bosnian Church (Christian, proclaimed heretical), and Islam. Remarkably, ste\u0107ci are not attributed to any ethnic or religious group, and have always been considered enigmatic, lacking a clear, explicit belonging.<\/span><\/p>\n<div id='gallery-1' class='gallery galleryid-23 gallery-columns-3 gallery-size-medium'><figure class='gallery-item'>\n\t\t\t<div class='gallery-icon portrait'>\n\t\t\t\t<a href='https:\/\/research.reading.ac.uk\/social-landscapes-multicultural-spaces\/section-2\/img_3447\/'><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"225\" height=\"300\" src=\"https:\/\/research.reading.ac.uk\/social-landscapes-multicultural-spaces\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/115\/Unorganized\/IMG_3447-225x300.jpg\" class=\"attachment-medium size-medium\" alt=\"\" srcset=\"https:\/\/research.reading.ac.uk\/social-landscapes-multicultural-spaces\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/115\/Unorganized\/IMG_3447-225x300.jpg 225w, https:\/\/research.reading.ac.uk\/social-landscapes-multicultural-spaces\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/115\/Unorganized\/IMG_3447-768x1024.jpg 768w, https:\/\/research.reading.ac.uk\/social-landscapes-multicultural-spaces\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/115\/Unorganized\/IMG_3447-1152x1536.jpg 1152w, https:\/\/research.reading.ac.uk\/social-landscapes-multicultural-spaces\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/115\/Unorganized\/IMG_3447-1536x2048.jpg 1536w, https:\/\/research.reading.ac.uk\/social-landscapes-multicultural-spaces\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/115\/Unorganized\/IMG_3447-scaled.jpg 1920w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 225px) 100vw, 225px\" \/><\/a>\n\t\t\t<\/div><\/figure><figure class='gallery-item'>\n\t\t\t<div class='gallery-icon portrait'>\n\t\t\t\t<a href='https:\/\/research.reading.ac.uk\/social-landscapes-multicultural-spaces\/section-2\/img_3446-2\/'><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"225\" height=\"300\" src=\"https:\/\/research.reading.ac.uk\/social-landscapes-multicultural-spaces\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/115\/Unorganized\/IMG_3446-2-225x300.jpg\" class=\"attachment-medium size-medium\" alt=\"\" srcset=\"https:\/\/research.reading.ac.uk\/social-landscapes-multicultural-spaces\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/115\/Unorganized\/IMG_3446-2-225x300.jpg 225w, https:\/\/research.reading.ac.uk\/social-landscapes-multicultural-spaces\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/115\/Unorganized\/IMG_3446-2-767x1024.jpg 767w, https:\/\/research.reading.ac.uk\/social-landscapes-multicultural-spaces\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/115\/Unorganized\/IMG_3446-2-768x1025.jpg 768w, https:\/\/research.reading.ac.uk\/social-landscapes-multicultural-spaces\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/115\/Unorganized\/IMG_3446-2-1151x1536.jpg 1151w, https:\/\/research.reading.ac.uk\/social-landscapes-multicultural-spaces\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/115\/Unorganized\/IMG_3446-2-1534x2048.jpg 1534w, https:\/\/research.reading.ac.uk\/social-landscapes-multicultural-spaces\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/115\/Unorganized\/IMG_3446-2-scaled.jpg 1918w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 225px) 100vw, 225px\" \/><\/a>\n\t\t\t<\/div><\/figure><figure class='gallery-item'>\n\t\t\t<div class='gallery-icon portrait'>\n\t\t\t\t<a href='https:\/\/research.reading.ac.uk\/social-landscapes-multicultural-spaces\/section-2\/img_3456\/'><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"225\" height=\"300\" src=\"https:\/\/research.reading.ac.uk\/social-landscapes-multicultural-spaces\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/115\/Unorganized\/IMG_3456-225x300.jpg\" class=\"attachment-medium size-medium\" alt=\"\" srcset=\"https:\/\/research.reading.ac.uk\/social-landscapes-multicultural-spaces\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/115\/Unorganized\/IMG_3456-225x300.jpg 225w, https:\/\/research.reading.ac.uk\/social-landscapes-multicultural-spaces\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/115\/Unorganized\/IMG_3456-768x1024.jpg 768w, https:\/\/research.reading.ac.uk\/social-landscapes-multicultural-spaces\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/115\/Unorganized\/IMG_3456-1152x1536.jpg 1152w, https:\/\/research.reading.ac.uk\/social-landscapes-multicultural-spaces\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/115\/Unorganized\/IMG_3456-1536x2048.jpg 1536w, https:\/\/research.reading.ac.uk\/social-landscapes-multicultural-spaces\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/115\/Unorganized\/IMG_3456-scaled.jpg 1920w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 225px) 100vw, 225px\" \/><\/a>\n\t\t\t<\/div><\/figure>\n\t\t<\/div>\n\n<p><span class=\"emphasise\"><strong>Historiography<\/strong><\/span><\/p>\n<div><span lang=\"EN-GB\">Ste\u0107ci synthesise the historical, cultural and religious components of the medieval Western Balkans, and they<\/span><span lang=\"EN-GB\">\u00a0bear witness to aspects of life and death, i.e. symbolism and reality<\/span><span lang=\"EN-GB\">. Studied extensively by historians, they remain vastly understudied by archaeologists.<\/span><\/div>\n<div>\n<p>The tombstones were first referenced in the sixteenth century, still in time when they were part of a live funerary custom. Benedikt Kuripe\u0161i\u0107, a Habsburg diplomat from Slovenia, came across these monuments in 1530, when he travelled to Istanbul in the service of the Holy Roman Emperor, King Ferdinand. Later, other itineraries were published &#8211; for example, by an Italian priest Fortis in 1776; by a Turkish traveller \u0106elebi in 1626 and others, where these monuments were noted. However, it was not until 1876 that the tombstones received European attention. Sir Arthur J. Evans travelled through Bosnia in 1875 and experienced &#8220;many adventures there&#8221;. He erroneously portrayed ste\u0107ci as Bogomil tombstones, a definition that prevailed for more than a 100 years, until it was finally refuted towards the end of the twentieth century. The first actual presentation of ste\u0107ci tombstones to the broader European public occurred in Paris, at the exhibition &#8220;Medieval art of the people of Yugoslavia&#8221; by Russian diplomat Soloviev, where they were displayed as being the art of all Yugoslavs nations.<\/p>\n<p>The first censuses of ste\u0107ci was implemented in the 1890s when BiH was part of the Austro-Hungarian empire. They documented over 59,500 monuments. Much energy was placed into assessing the numbers and distribution of these monuments in the subsequent years. After the II World war, a systematic cataloguing in the 1950s &amp; 1960s focused on classifications of their physical features. This extensive work was organised by a Bosnian scholar \u0160efik Be\u0161lagi\u0107 (he authored more than 270 publications exploring these monuments, his corpus is listed in Kurtovi\u0107 2003), with many other Yugoslavian colleagues.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<div><span class=\"emphasise\"><strong style=\"letter-spacing: 0.08px\"><span lang=\"EN-GB\">The Enigma of Ste\u0107ci<\/span><\/strong><\/span><\/div>\n<div>\n<div>\n<div><span lang=\"EN-GB\">\u00a0<\/span><\/div>\n<\/div>\n<div>\n<div><span lang=\"EN-GB\">The initial manifestation of ste\u0107ci remains obscure and debated. Some theories link them to megalithic traditions, while others see them as representing Romanesque or Gothic coastal urban houses,\u00a0<\/span><span lang=\"EN-GB\">local medieval Christian sarcophagi or Bosnian rural houses. Why they appear in the 12<\/span><span lang=\"EN-GB\">th<\/span><span lang=\"EN-GB\">\u00a0C, what triggered their initial creation, and the presence of precursors remain largely unknown. The earliest ste\u010dak, dated by the inscription, is that of Grde\u0161a, the mayor of Trebinje (1151-1177).<\/span><span lang=\"EN-GB\">\u00a0However, current knowledge on the origins of this UNESCO protected heritage is invariably the result of the state of research as all excavated graves date after\u00a0<\/span><span lang=\"EN-GB\">Grde\u0161a\u2019s<\/span><span lang=\"EN-GB\">\u00a0tombstone. This enigma prompted the development of three concepts about their origin:\u00a0<\/span><\/div>\n<\/div>\n<div>\n<ul>\n<li><span lang=\"EN-GB\">Religious hypothesis<\/span><span lang=\"EN-GB\">:<\/span><span lang=\"EN-GB\">\u00a0ste\u0107ci are tombstones erected by the supporters of Bogomilism, the Gnostic social-religious movement; or by the heretical dualist Bosnian Church;\u00a0<\/span><\/li>\n<li><span lang=\"EN-US\">Ethnic hypothesis<\/span><span lang=\"EN-US\">:<\/span><span lang=\"EN-US\">\u00a0they are related to the native Vlach population;\u00a0<\/span><\/li>\n<li><span lang=\"EN-US\">Social hypothesis<\/span><span lang=\"EN-US\">:<\/span><span lang=\"EN-US\">\u00a0the tombstones are symbols of high social status groups within these communities.\u00a0<\/span><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p><span style=\"letter-spacing: 0.08px\">The number of ste\u0107ci speaks against the latter, yet only a systematic study will shed further light on these theories. \u00a0<\/span><span lang=\"EN-US\" style=\"letter-spacing: 0.08px\">The quantity of the tombstones in a cemetery is an important indicator of social trends in medieval BiH.\u00a0<\/span><span lang=\"EN-US\" style=\"letter-spacing: 0.08px\">Historical studies revealed\u00a0<\/span><span lang=\"EN-US\" style=\"letter-spacing: 0.08px\">three<\/span><span lang=\"EN-US\" style=\"letter-spacing: 0.08px\">\u00a0<\/span><span lang=\"EN-US\" style=\"letter-spacing: 0.08px\">types<\/span><span lang=\"EN-US\" style=\"letter-spacing: 0.08px\">\u00a0of<\/span><span lang=\"EN-US\" style=\"letter-spacing: 0.08px\">\u00a0cemeteries<\/span><span lang=\"EN-US\" style=\"letter-spacing: 0.08px\">:<\/span><\/p>\n<ul>\n<li><span lang=\"EN-US\" style=\"letter-spacing: 0.08px\">f<\/span><span lang=\"EN-US\" style=\"letter-spacing: 0.08px\">amily\u00a0<\/span><span lang=\"EN-US\" style=\"letter-spacing: 0.08px\">burial grounds<\/span><span lang=\"EN-US\" style=\"letter-spacing: 0.08px\">, wit<\/span><span lang=\"EN-US\" style=\"letter-spacing: 0.08px\">h<\/span><span lang=\"EN-US\" style=\"letter-spacing: 0.08px\">\u00a0<\/span><span lang=\"EN-US\" style=\"letter-spacing: 0.08px\">~<\/span><span lang=\"EN-US\" style=\"letter-spacing: 0.08px\">10 tombstones;\u00a0<\/span><\/li>\n<li><span lang=\"EN-US\" style=\"letter-spacing: 0.08px\">c<\/span><span lang=\"EN-US\" style=\"letter-spacing: 0.08px\">lan necropolis<\/span><span lang=\"EN-US\" style=\"letter-spacing: 0.08px\">es<\/span><span lang=\"EN-US\" style=\"letter-spacing: 0.08px\">\u00a0with 30-50 tombstones;\u00a0<\/span><span lang=\"EN-US\" style=\"letter-spacing: 0.08px\">and\u00a0<\/span><\/li>\n<li><span lang=\"EN-US\" style=\"letter-spacing: 0.08px\">c<\/span><span lang=\"EN-US\" style=\"letter-spacing: 0.08px\">emeteries\u00a0<\/span><span lang=\"EN-US\" style=\"letter-spacing: 0.08px\">of\u00a0<\/span><span lang=\"EN-US\" style=\"letter-spacing: 0.08px\">entire\u00a0<\/span><span lang=\"EN-US\" style=\"letter-spacing: 0.08px\">communit<\/span><span lang=\"EN-US\" style=\"letter-spacing: 0.08px\">ies<\/span><span lang=\"EN-US\" style=\"letter-spacing: 0.08px\">\u00a0with\u00a0<\/span><span lang=\"EN-US\" style=\"letter-spacing: 0.08px\">a few<\/span><span lang=\"EN-US\" style=\"letter-spacing: 0.08px\">\u00a0hundred tombstones.<\/span><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/div>\n<div>\n<div>\n<div>\n<p><span lang=\"EN-US\" style=\"letter-spacing: 0.08px\">Small cemeteries should represent a later stage in medieval society,\u00a0<\/span><span lang=\"EN-US\" style=\"letter-spacing: 0.08px\">after<\/span><span lang=\"EN-US\" style=\"letter-spacing: 0.08px\">\u00a0the collapse of clan-based groups and the emergence<\/span><span lang=\"EN-US\" style=\"letter-spacing: 0.08px\">\u00a0<\/span><span lang=\"EN-US\" style=\"letter-spacing: 0.08px\">of family communities, with smaller burial grounds<\/span><span lang=\"EN-US\" style=\"letter-spacing: 0.08px\">,<\/span><span lang=\"EN-US\" style=\"letter-spacing: 0.08px\"><span lang=\"EN-US\" style=\"letter-spacing: 0.08px\">\u00a0marking their new identity.<\/span><\/span><\/p>\n<div id='gallery-2' class='gallery galleryid-23 gallery-columns-1 gallery-size-full'><figure class='gallery-item'>\n\t\t\t<div class='gallery-icon landscape'>\n\t\t\t\t<a href='https:\/\/research.reading.ac.uk\/social-landscapes-multicultural-spaces\/section-2\/img_0083\/'><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"2560\" height=\"1078\" src=\"https:\/\/research.reading.ac.uk\/social-landscapes-multicultural-spaces\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/115\/Unorganized\/IMG_0083-scaled.jpg\" class=\"attachment-full size-full\" alt=\"\" srcset=\"https:\/\/research.reading.ac.uk\/social-landscapes-multicultural-spaces\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/115\/Unorganized\/IMG_0083-scaled.jpg 2560w, https:\/\/research.reading.ac.uk\/social-landscapes-multicultural-spaces\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/115\/Unorganized\/IMG_0083-300x126.jpg 300w, https:\/\/research.reading.ac.uk\/social-landscapes-multicultural-spaces\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/115\/Unorganized\/IMG_0083-1024x431.jpg 1024w, https:\/\/research.reading.ac.uk\/social-landscapes-multicultural-spaces\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/115\/Unorganized\/IMG_0083-768x323.jpg 768w, https:\/\/research.reading.ac.uk\/social-landscapes-multicultural-spaces\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/115\/Unorganized\/IMG_0083-1536x647.jpg 1536w, https:\/\/research.reading.ac.uk\/social-landscapes-multicultural-spaces\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/115\/Unorganized\/IMG_0083-2048x862.jpg 2048w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 2560px) 100vw, 2560px\" \/><\/a>\n\t\t\t<\/div><\/figure>\n\t\t<\/div>\n\n<p><span lang=\"EN-US\" style=\"letter-spacing: 0.08px\">Regional variations are evident in the forms, ornamentation, epitaphs and the quality of craftsmanship. Decorations in low relief consist of abstract motifs, celestial bodies, human &amp; animal figures, weaponry, floral decorations, etc.; some of the tombstones have epitaphs, written mostly in\u00a0<\/span><span lang=\"EN-US\" style=\"letter-spacing: 0.08px\">extinct Bosnian Cyrillic or Glagolitic Latin script. It appears that the cross-type ste\u0107ci are the most\u00a0<\/span><span lang=\"EN-US\" style=\"letter-spacing: 0.08px\">particular<\/span><span lang=\"EN-US\" style=\"letter-spacing: 0.08px\">, with extensive regional distribution, but\u00a0<\/span><span lang=\"EN-US\" style=\"letter-spacing: 0.08px\">a single presence\u00a0<\/span><span lang=\"EN-US\" style=\"letter-spacing: 0.08px\">in a cemetery. Their almost exclusively crescent moon-and<\/span><span lang=\"EN-US\" style=\"letter-spacing: 0.08px\">&#8211;<\/span><span lang=\"EN-US\" style=\"letter-spacing: 0.08px\">star ornament<\/span><span lang=\"EN-US\" style=\"letter-spacing: 0.08px\">\u00a0<\/span><span lang=\"EN-US\" style=\"letter-spacing: 0.08px\">historians see as\u00a0<\/span><span lang=\"EN-US\" style=\"letter-spacing: 0.08px\">emblematic of a few specific\u00a0<\/span><span lang=\"EN-US\" style=\"letter-spacing: 0.08px\">religious affiliations: pagan, Christian, Mithraism.<\/span><span style=\"letter-spacing: 0.08px\">\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<div>\n<div><span lang=\"EN-US\">Despite the immense potential of ste\u0107ci to reveal social identity, few scholars have investigated the cultural contexts of these\u00a0<\/span><span lang=\"EN-US\">burial\u00a0<\/span><span lang=\"EN-US\">markers. The most recent publications offer a<\/span><span lang=\"EN-US\">n<\/span><span lang=\"EN-US\">\u00a0archaeological cataloguing of ste\u0107ci in Serbia, an\u00a0<\/span><span lang=\"EN-US\">archaeo<\/span><span lang=\"EN-US\">-historical account as a segment of an exhibition in Croatia, and a historical study focusing on ste\u0107ci within Bosnian Islam since 1500<\/span><span lang=\"EN-US\">\u00a0on<\/span><span lang=\"EN-US\">.<\/span><span lang=\"EN-US\">\u00a0What is missing is the s<\/span><span lang=\"EN-US\">tudy of their socio-political and<\/span><span lang=\"EN-US\">\u00a0land<\/span><span lang=\"EN-US\">scape\/environmental context.\u00a0<\/span><span lang=\"EN-US\">A<\/span><span lang=\"EN-US\">n academic tradition\u00a0<\/span><span lang=\"EN-US\">o<\/span><span lang=\"EN-US\">f research from\u00a0<\/span><span lang=\"EN-US\">social archaeological perspective in the Balkans simply\u00a0<\/span><span lang=\"EN-US\">does<\/span><span lang=\"EN-US\">n\u2019t exist, which emphasises the\u00a0<\/span><span lang=\"EN-US\">timeliness<\/span><span lang=\"EN-US\">\u00a0and need<\/span><span lang=\"EN-US\">\u00a0<\/span><span lang=\"EN-US\">for<\/span><span lang=\"EN-US\">\u00a0an interdisciplinary<\/span><span lang=\"EN-US\">\u00a0<\/span><span lang=\"EN-US\">study<\/span><span lang=\"EN-US\">.<\/span><\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n","protected":false},"excerpt":{"rendered":"<p>General Ste\u0107ci are medieval tombstones dispersed throughout the landscapes of Serbia, Croatia, Montenegro, Kosovo, and particularly Bosnia and Herzegovina (BiH). The evidence suggests they first appeared in the 12th\u00a0C, and&#8230;<a class=\"read-more\" href=\"&#104;&#116;&#116;&#112;&#115;&#58;&#47;&#47;&#114;&#101;&#115;&#101;&#97;&#114;&#99;&#104;&#46;&#114;&#101;&#97;&#100;&#105;&#110;&#103;&#46;&#97;&#99;&#46;&#117;&#107;&#47;&#115;&#111;&#99;&#105;&#97;&#108;&#45;&#108;&#97;&#110;&#100;&#115;&#99;&#97;&#112;&#101;&#115;&#45;&#109;&#117;&#108;&#116;&#105;&#99;&#117;&#108;&#116;&#117;&#114;&#97;&#108;&#45;&#115;&#112;&#97;&#99;&#101;&#115;&#47;&#115;&#101;&#99;&#116;&#105;&#111;&#110;&#45;&#50;&#47;\">Read More ><\/a><\/p>\n","protected":false},"author":219,"featured_media":237,"parent":0,"menu_order":0,"comment_status":"closed","ping_status":"closed","template":"","meta":{"_acf_changed":false,"_monsterinsights_skip_tracking":false,"_monsterinsights_sitenote_active":false,"_monsterinsights_sitenote_note":"","_monsterinsights_sitenote_category":0,"__cvm_playback_settings":[],"__cvm_video_id":"","footnotes":""},"class_list":["post-23","page","type-page","status-publish","has-post-thumbnail","hentry"],"acf":[],"yoast_head":"<!-- This site is optimized with the Yoast SEO plugin v21.8.1 - https:\/\/yoast.com\/wordpress\/plugins\/seo\/ -->\n<title>Ste\u0107ci - Social Landscapes as Multicultural Spaces<\/title>\n<meta name=\"robots\" content=\"noindex, follow, max-snippet:-1, max-image-preview:large, max-video-preview:-1\" \/>\n<meta property=\"og:locale\" content=\"en_GB\" \/>\n<meta property=\"og:type\" content=\"article\" \/>\n<meta property=\"og:title\" content=\"Ste\u0107ci - Social Landscapes as Multicultural Spaces\" \/>\n<meta property=\"og:description\" content=\"General Ste\u0107ci are medieval tombstones dispersed throughout the landscapes of Serbia, Croatia, Montenegro, Kosovo, and particularly Bosnia and Herzegovina (BiH). 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